Vocabulary+Instruction

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Figuring Out What Words Mean
Vocabulary knowledge is a fundamental component to reading comprehension; one cannot understand text without knowing what the words mean. Increasing vocabulary knowlege is a basic part of the education process. Students lacking adequate knowledge are already at a large disadvantage. This is especially true for English Language Learners, who have a lot of new vocabulary to learn. When students do not know a word teachers refer them to the dictionary or tell them to use "context clues." Many teachers hand out a list of vocabulary words on Monday and quiz their students later in the week, only for them to forget the newly learned vocabulary after the test. This often happens because new teachers can feel that vocabulary instruction is easy, and simply teach it the way they were taught, but there are better ways to teach kids how to learn about words. Also, studies show that for a student to learn and remember a new word they must receive it six times; this cannot happen if students are just tested on it and never again asked to use it. Kylene Beers suggests that there are alternative and more effective ways to teach vocabulary. She provides several "effective" suggestions:

1. Assign Fewer Words and Use Them in Your Speech
Often we assign to many words and do use them in our speech. Instead, assign fewer words and use them in your speech leading up to the vocabulary lesson so that students are familiar with the words and recognize them more easily.

2. Teach Word Parts
Prefixes, roots, and suffixes are tools that provide students clues to understanding unfamiliar words. Beers discusses that even though teaching Latin and Greek is sometimes seen as an archaic form of teaching vocabulary, it is nonetheless useful to students. She suggests that to make it more effective teachers should use a graphic organizer, such as a vocabulary tree. Have students draw a trunk of a tree and write down a root (such as tract: to pull, drag). Then, in the branches, have students write as many other words that they can that use that root (one word in each branch such as //attract: to cause to come near// in one branch and //subtract: to take away// in another). In the twigs they write where they hear the words. They can build on these trees throughout the year ..

3. Use Logographic Clues
Students often associate pictures with words. Have the student write a word on one side of an index card and on the other a picture describing the word. For instance, "they could write the word //apparition// and on one side and draw a picture of a ghost on the other ..

4. Read Aloud and Use Silent Reading
Beers states that our vocabulary "is not determined by the 10,000 words we use regularly in conversation, but by how many //rare words// we understand." We encounter more rare words through reading than through conversation, thus Beers suggests that teachers set aside time for silent reading for the students and ten minutes to read aloud to the students. Research has shown that "reading aloud is beneficial as it improves background knowledge, comprehension, and students' ability to visualize a text".

Students also need to know how readers come to know and understand unknown words or phrases in the books that they are reading and in everyday speech. Independent reading and teacher read alouds are important for this reason. Students need to see us stop and think aloud as we are reading aloud and to infer meaning from words we do not know. They also need to see us going back to certain words or phrases after we gain more information from the surrounding text as well as the larger text. Students also need to see us using graphs, charts, pictures, glossaries, footnotes, and parentheticals to help us understand words. As teachers, we must guide students and show them our own strategies for getting through difficult words.

**5. Using Synonyms**
When it comes to vocabulary, several students can rattle off a definition of a word, but they do not understand how word choice can affect meaning. For example, most students can " supply a conventional definition [of the word synonym], some variation of “a word that means the same as another word.” But this understanding is at best an oversimplification and at worst a way to end thinking about what words actually signify. A better definition might stress that a synonym is a word not the same as but similar to another word; the subtlety of just how and to what extent it is similar makes all the difference when it comes to choosing the best word for a given purpose." Several students rely on the thesaurus to add "variety" to their texts, but they do not think about what connotations words have. Jessica Miller and Darren Crovitz developed a model that helped to chart the differences between connotations by forcing students to think about negative and positive impact, as well as formal and informal use.

Example using the word "eat."

Concept Maps
Another important tool for vocabulary instruction is concept maps. IF students make a concept map that has the new vocabulary word and ideas like the category of the word or an example of how to use the word. Making a concept map asks students to think about the word. Rather than just asking a student to look up the word in a dictionary and memorize it, a concept map asks a student to think about the word and their prior knowledge - if any - with the word. Concept maps are effective because they asks students to think about the word, instead of just define it. However, it is not possible to do this with ever single word a student might not know due to time restraints. Therefore, the teacher and the students need to chose wisely. A Sample Concept Map



Greek and Latin Roots
Research has suggested that up to 80 percent of English words are borrowed from other langauges have Greek and Latin roots, which comprises around 60 percent of our entire language. Teaching students roots helps them to apply that knowledge towards new words that they may encounter and may not be able to define at first. For example, if a student understands that the roots "sta, stat, stit, stist" mean "put in place or stand," then words like //stat//ionary and //stat//ue can be comprehended. The student will understand that a statue stands in one place. Research also reveals that students who are well-versed in their Greeka and Latin roots exhibit higher test scores on the PSAT, SAT, and ACT tests. Students will begin to notice these roots in all of their classes, which should encourage cross-curricular reinforcement. However, not all students will be able to make the connection between classes, so it is important that teachers reiterate and demonstrate the relevance of the root words and their respective derivatives to the students.

Using a wide range of teaching methods
Christine Moen in her article, "Bringing Words to Life and into the Lives of Middle School Students," she emphasized teacher's need to use a wide range of different teaching methods to introduce vocabulary. The three main methods she pointed out were the use of independent reading, teacher read-alouds, and activities where students get to play with words. Moen discussed a 5 day process in which she introduces and teaches vocabulary words to her students.

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3-- Work those Words! Day 4- Game Day- Learning through Play Day 5- Use it and Prove it Test
 * The teacher introduces the vocabulary to the students by giving the definitions of words, their parts of speech, and modeling its use in a sentence.
 * Students pick their words for Thirty Second Vocabulary activity for the next day.
 * Students perform their selected vocabulary through the use of Thirty Second Vocabulary.
 * Students have thirty second to three minutes to either act out or display with an artifact the meaning of their word. At some point (before, during, or after) their presentation, students must pronounce the word correctly, give the word's definition, and tell the word's part of speech.
 * Through this activity students are teaching words to their class through movement and imagination.
 * Students must do something with their words through the use of an activity
 * Say it with a string
 * Students create an image that is representative of their chosen word using two pieces of string.
 * Other students must walk around and guess which vocabulary word the student is trying to portray.
 * Later, the student must write a sentence describing how the image represents the vocabulary word.
 * Vocabulary cards left
 * Students draw an image representative of their word on a 3 X 9 cardstock and write the word on the front. On the back of the card the students will write the definition of the word and an example sentence.
 * Students sit in a circle and pass their cards to the left. Each study will study each card for 15 to 20 seconds until the teacher says "left."
 * Set up different word games through the room. Each game should have about 3 players.
 * Students play four different games for five minutes each.
 * The Word Giver announces the vocabulary word to his partners. Each player gets a different word. If the first player can use it correctly in a sentence or give the proper definition and part of speech, he or she gets the chance to toss the ring, shoot the basketball, etc etc.
 * Students do not keep track of points or determine a winner.
 * Tests can be made up of having students use words in original sentences or write their own matching and sentence completion tests.
 * Extra Credit
 * If students spot a vocabulary word in their written work and present it to the teacher, extra credit can be given later.
 * If students use vocabulary words during their writer's workshop.
 * Use a previous vocabulary word in a subsequent 30 Second Vocabulary activity.

Differentiating Vocabulary Instruction
To ascertain the degree of differentiation amongst a classroom, a teacher can issue a Preassessment of the vocabulary. Students are asked to use eight different words (from a list of 30 or so found in the text) in a meaningful sentence that includes three of the five descriptors: who, what, when, where, and why. An example from //A Separate Peace//: “Gene (who) was //enamored// (vocab word) with Finny (who) during his sophomore year (when). This activity will allow the teacher to understand exactly what sort of grasp the students have on the vocabulary words, and then he/she can adjust the curriculum to address those needs. The suggested process for teaching vocabulary to all levels of learners is: 1) Explicit Instruction (Introduce the word, Explain the word, Illustrate the word) 2) Independent Strategy Development (various activities they complete on the their own to further master the definitions) and 3)Post-Assessment (making sure students have a deep understanding of the words in their contexts).  ﻿  **Teaching Vocabulary to English Language Learners**  ﻿Teachers should note that vocabulary instruction is especially important for ELL learners in the classroom, and they may require a certain level of differentiated instruction. Gersten and Baker suggest “careful consideration so that words selected convey key concepts, are of high utility, are relevant to the bulk of the content being learned, and have meaning in the lives of the students”. They suggest that students will learn words best when they are using them in their everyday language and writing. Teachers should also be aware of these uses and correct errors as soon as they are made. Teachers are meant to work closely alongside all students—but especially ELL learners—to ensure their grasp on the language. The article also asserts that silence can often be an indicator that students do not understand the definitions of the words referred to in the discussion and questions.

Harmon's List
The following techniques are used to clarify word meanings for students:


 * Synonyms
 * Brief descriptions
 * Examples and non-examples
 * Rephrasing
 * Repetition
 * Associations
 * Unique expression

**EASE**
EASE is a four-step procedure to help students successfully learn vocabulary. First, students should Enunciate new words syllable-by-syllable and then blend the word, repeating the process several times. Next, teachers Associate the word with definitions and examples that students already know. Thirdly, students Synthesize the words with other words and concepts that they have already studied (This is when students should engage in some activity to make the word their own and the teacher can check for understanding). Finally, teachers Emphasize new words in classroom discussions, writing activities, and a variety of other contexts (Lambert).

 RECAP OF EASE:  Enunciate  Associate  Synthesize  Emphasize   We know alot about vocabulary at the moment, but there is still so much to research and understand about teaching vocabulary. However, a few things that we do know are that those who know more words are better readers, increasing the volume of reading helps readers learn new words, knowing a word means more than knowing a definition, word learning is often based on background knowledge of the concept, instruction of definitions most likely will not increase comprehension of a passage containing the word, and readers need to know how to learn new words when they encounter them in their reading. One way to do this is a teaching strategy with 3 parts. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> 1) Have the students predict the content. This is a before reading strategy that helps students understand the context of the new words they might encounter. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> 2) Instruct the students on words that they might encounter in other content areas <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> 3) Assess their understanding <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">Word Links
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> Another teaching strategy is word links. Word Links makes students form connection between words. They can be compare and contrast, cause and effect relationships, or simply similar words; the point is to make students think about word connections. To do word links, give each student in the class a different word with a definition, and then have the students mix and mingle until they find a partner. Then have each pair explain to the class why they chose each other. Then a teacher can have the students mix again to choose a different word and link. This event can also be more structured by having a group of words that students must decide where to put their word, creating word families. This is not only a good tool for an English classroom, but also for other core classes as one can use important vocab in the current science or history chapter.

Importance of Vocabulary **Instruction in the Middle Grades**
In the article "Vocabulary Instruction in the Middle Grades," Michael Graves asserts the importance of vocabulary to success for the following reasons:

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Graves includes these interesting statistics:
 * Vocabulary knowledge in kindergarten and first grade is a significant predictor for reading comprehension in the middle and secondary grades.
 * Vocabulary difficulty strongly influences the readability of text.
 * Teaching vocabulary can improve reading comprehension.
 * Growing up in poverty can seriously restrict the vocabulary children learn before beginning school and make attaining an adequate vocabulary a very challenging task.
 * Learning English vocabulary is one of the most crucial tasks for English learners.
 * Lack of vocabulary can be a crucial factor underlying the school failure of many students. (Graves 13)

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Graves advocates for vocabulary instruction which //immerses// the student in many different ways. Like Nagy, Graves asserts that effective vocabulary instruction occurs with both definitional and contextual information. Moreover, vocabulary instruction must be frequent. Graves requires at least 30 minutes a day!
 * The books and other reading materials used by school children include over 180,000 different words. The average child enters school with a very small reading vocabulary.
 * Once in school, a child’s reading vocabulary is likely to soar at a rate of something like 3,000 words a year, leading to a reading vocabulary of around 25,000 words by eighth grade. (Graves 13)

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> Graves provides four popular word-learning strategies are:

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Lastly, Graves emphasizes that the students must not only have knowledge of vocabulary but also have an understanding of vocabulary power. He terms the idea as //word consciousness:// Student’s awareness of and interest in words and their meanings, the importance of word choice, the power of words.
 * Introducing context (the most widely recommended)
 * Using word parts to unlock the meanings of unknown words (requires instruction in prefixes, suffixes, and, possibly, roots)
 * Using the dictionary (easy to use independently)
 * Using cognates to learn English words (particularly effective with students whose native language is Spanish, French, and German) (Graves 14)

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> (Graves 18-19) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> In Janet Allen’s article “Too Little or Too Much? What Do We Know about Making Vocabulary Instruction Meaningful?”, she considers that teachers should not be looking for new and inventive ways of teaching vocabulary instruction, but instead, we should embrace and put into place the existing research. Two highlights: “Knowing a word means more than knowing a definition” and “Learners need vocabulary instruction that is generative so they are learning how to learn new words they encounter during independent literacy experiences.” Allen suggests both predicting content through building sentences based off of vocabulary and targeting academic vocabulary to cross content areas and boost overall reading understanding.

In Michael F. Graves’ article “Vocabulary Instruction in the Middle Grades”, he associates effective vocabulary instruction with “Frequent, Varied, and Extensive Language Experiences”. Graves suggests four common strategies: introducing context, using “word parts to unlock the meanings of unknown words”, using the dictionary and using cognates for ELL students. Graves refers to word consciousness (“an awareness of and interest in words and their meanings”) as an integral part of vocabulary instruction. This seems to be the most difficult part of vocabulary instruction. How does a teacher accomplish this? Graves strongly advocates simply sparking a students interest in reading so that they can develop and come to acknowledge the broad power of words.

In Jeff Wilhelm and Michael Smith’s article “What Teachers Need to Know about Motivation”, they discuss the distinction between catering toward individual student interests and situational interests that arch over the whole class of students. They advocate situational interests because keying into individual students interests (although they acknowledge the profound possibilities) would take too much time. The authors examine research and come to a handful of findings about motivation. The research shows that students want to feel a social dimension to their learning and a connection to the characters and families, a connection which a teacher can foster and develop. Students want to have an immediate reward, a pulse to increase their motivation. Students want to have choice in what they are learning in the classroom. Choice is intensely important.

**Vocabulary & Comprehension**
Vocabulary plays an important role in reading comprehension. The relationship between the two seems obvious: the more words a student knows, the more he or she is better equipped to comprehend a text. However, the relationship between reading and vocabulary is not quite as directly connected. Vocabulary lessons are often taught in an ineffective manner—that is, merely providing definitions of words does not necessarily provide an understanding of the word for the student. In an experiment done with children (the age was never mentioned), one group was given a basic lesson of the meaning of vocabulary words (which were taken from the passage) before the group was handed the passage to read. The other group received no vocabulary instruction before reading the passage. Shockingly, both groups received similar grades on a comprehension test. In other words, learning definitions of words is not enough to improve comprehension. Students need to develop an "in-depth" knowledge of words from explicit and incidental interactons in order to fully grasp the meanings. Only successful vocabulary instruction will improve comprehension.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> Effective teachers are needed to increase the connection between teaching vocabulary and reading comprehension. Effective teachers are those who foster a love of reading and help their students become competent in diving deeply into texts. Vocabulary instruction is necessary to do this and requires that teachers do not just give their students lists of words to memorize. Vocabulary must be infiltrated into everything a student does in a classroom.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In Whitaker's article, she discusses the huge amount of emphasis that is placed on knowing thousands and thousands of words for the TAKS test. However, teachers do not have time to teach thousands of words to their students in a year. One strategy that was mentioned was that students must learn more words than the teacher can teach them directly. This learning must occur through the way the students read and speak. An indicator of how much vocabulary students know is found in the way they speak to each other. The socially acceptable manner of speaking conveys a poor knowledge of vocabulary. Teachers can overcome this by practicing the vocabulary in the classroom discussion. Also, teachers can give students tools to use when they encounter unknown words in their reading. One tool is called understanding morphemic structure, which allows students to gain an understanding of how to approximate meanings out of words.